Records Managment

National Archives and Records Administration PC-GSM: President Office Public Service Management Records and Management Departments President Office Public Service Management Economic Social Records foundation Department for International Development Service Civil Technical College -RPC: Tanzania Public Service College. Firstly I extend my sincere thanks to father Jesus Christ who has proved to me that is not by might or by power but by the spirit in him nothing is impossible.If it was not God grace I would not have produced this great field report in his wisdom he has always led me to greater heights. This is to acknowledge that the work of this report could not be completed without the support of other people during my field attachment training at Inference Limited. In that regard I take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks to Mr.. Edwin Kananga who is Managing Director, for his support and for putting the necessary required working environment which enabled me to complete my field attachment.I also thank my Employer Mr.. Frank Ole Enjoin, for giving me permission of four weeks to complete my field training at Inference. I thank also all staff of Inference Ltd for working with me during my four weeks stay at the firm. This reports present in four chapters' lesson learned from Inference Limited during my field attachment training. Chapter one briefly presents the introduction and historical background of Inference Limited and its Vision, Mission Statement, objectives and current organization chart.Chapter two present field attachment training gained in terms of description of Inference Limited; duties assigned during my field attachment; Achievements made; problems experienced and Skills acquired. Chapter three discusses major problems and challenges encountered by Inference Record Office. I also propose possible solutions. Chapter four presents field attachment training conclusions and Recommendation Reference and Appendices

Describe the management styles and cultures present within the business Essay

The four management styles. Autocratic management this is where they the manager will issue instructions and give the staff orders, this gives the staff little chance to give their own opinion and ask the manager questions or even discuss things with him or her. The manager doesn’t know his staff very well and wont make many attempts to get to know them. Because of this the staff don’t see them selves as team members. Democratic management this is where that he or she is the leader of the team but they are also a team member and has to do the same work as everyone else. The team members liked to be involved in group discussions and decision making. The team leader will encourage his team to participate and help each team member to reach his or her potential goal. Consultative management’s where the manger often appears to be more democratic than he is or she really is. The manger will inform the staff what is going on and what will happen that day. He will encourage his or her staff to express their opinions but in the end he will still choose the way he wants things done around the business. Laissez faire is where the manager doesn’t really care about his staff; the manager will have a non-care less attitude. The manager will not act his or she ‘s responsibility and just leave the staff to make the decisions and to sort out their own work. A manager or team leaders will not just have one management style they normally will adapt their style to the situation which they are in, but they will go back to their normal style of management. The management style that is used in an organisation can depend on type of structure, objectives and culture that the business has. Most of the time there is an autocratic style of management in a tall structure. But sometimes in a tall structure the style of management will tend to change because there are a lot of managers and this means that there are more decisions to make. This is because it comes down the chain of command. In a flat structure there is more teamwork so the type of management style that is used is democratic. Management styles used at Tesco There are at least four types of management structures used at Tesco. The head office will set the objectives and targets for the stores and they dont have much say in it so head office will bean autocratic style of management. Terry Leahy is the managing director and is very lenient. He will visit the stores and talk to all the staff. His style of management is Democratic as he recognises that he is the leader but likes to be involved with the rest of the staff as he is interested with the team and like’s to see how the staff are doing. Andy thought this was unusual as the other managing directors in the past were very autocratic and often the visits were treated as Royal visits. The recruitment of staff is a mixture of both democratic and autocratic. Head office autocratically set how much can be spent on the staff and also the hours of pay, but they allow each stores personnel manager and store manager how they would like to spend it. This can be full-time and part-time staff. Because they tell the people applying for the job what they want from a worker and they also don’t know the people. The RAT system is a democratic style of management this is because they work together so they can solve problems that occur in the business. When a problem occurs employees of the company are asked if they would like to join the RAT team to try and solve the problem. If they do join they will meet regularly and discuss ways in which they can solve the problem. It can be any rank of staff that joins the RAT team, as they are all equal members. Andy told us that as food-training manager is responsible for his area of the shop he could choose how he manages his staff and his area. He says that he likes to have a democratic management style because he likes to be treated as a team member not just a manger, he likes to think he listens to the staff and allows them to offer their opinion. Andy told us that he uses list management. He explained this and it is used for staff who are fairly new and need help, they will receive a short but detailed list of jobs that they have to complete, and then they come back for another list. Where as other more experienced staff have a less detailed list and maybe able to work on their own and use their initiative. Culture Culture is the set of values, beliefs and attitude of both the employees and management, which will help with the decision making. All organisations have a culture. A business culture will determine how the business is run. There are 12 types of business culture. Customer driven culture is where the business is dedicated at all levels to satisfy their customers. They will try and improve all aspects of the production service down to the last detail to help the customers. This type of culture is at Tesco. Tesco number one objective is the customers and try to satisfy them with their every need. They will try giving the customers the best product’s possible. Technological culture, this will emphasise and focus on the development of technological excellence. All the ideas from any member of the business will be positively encouraged. This type of culture is at Tesco because they will try and have all the new technology available to them, for example they have all the new tills, price guns tannoys and internet shopping. Person culture is where the managers and staff will support each other’s progress threw the business and their development. This type of management is at Tesac’s because they have team five and take ten, they like to know how the staff are improving with their skills and if they are learning any new skills so they become multi- skilled. Tesco also like to know if their staff are feeling O.K and that their general life style is OK Role culture, This is where someone will

The term science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The term science - Essay Example (Murzi M., 2006) Everyone knows that science rests on the broad shoulders of facts, without facts there would be no science. But the accumulation of facts only does not make science, just like piling up of bricks does not make a house. To make a house one first needs to have chalk-out a plan of the house and then lay the bricks in a definite pattern according to the plan. It's the same thing with the facts and science, only facts does not make science. The accumulation of facts, the systematic analyzation of these facts, experimentation on these facts, forming a hypothesis and then arriving to a fixed conclusion through these facts is what actually science is. The green leaves is a simple fact, but the knowledge that green leaves produce food for the plant and releases oxygen into the atmosphere is science. This conclusion was derived after scientifically analyzing the fact that the leaves are green and by experimenting on this fact. This is how facts work together and creates science. (Carter Stein J, 2006) The world is fu The world is full of facts, we eat, that is a fact, we sleep, that is a fact, we laugh, and that is a fact; so if we look at the world this way through facts that then everything in this world and every moment of our lives adds up to science. Right from our waking up in the morning to going to sleep at night totals up and makes way for science. Even our dreams and thoughts is a part of science as they are also facts and with logical and systematic approach people have made science out of them. No branch of knowledge is devoid of science, anything that requires reason, logic, thinking and systematic approach is science, so even the branch of knowledge like history, though a humanitarian subject can be said to be a form of science. As history is also the collection of facts though one may have to dig it up, and laying them in a systematic manner like laying the bricks for building a house. Science and Knowledge The term science comes from the Latin word 'scienta' which means knowledge, but knowledge as one knows is the fact or the whole truth that can be shared with no questions asked, whereas if a chemist or a physicist is doing some research in a lab on their own individual fields one may call it science, but not knowledge. The simple reason why it cannot be called knowledge is that no one knows about the science that is being done in the lab. So now the question arises that when does science which itself means knowledge actually becomes knowledge The answer for this is that the science in the lab becomes knowledge only when the researcher gets to the truth of the matter on which he was carrying out the science in the lab. Then he can go out and cry Eureka! And hence make a contribution to knowledge. Through this observation one may also conclude that science is not knowledge but nothing but the truth and knowing it is the real knowledge. So Why Science A simple and a prompt answer to this question would be to satisfy the undying curiosity of human beings. Human beings are never satisfied with what they have and what they

EBP Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

EBP - Assignment Example This report features what is constituted in a healthcare model along with succinct description as well as discussed findings from the literature review (Wood, 2011). Pediatric patients and children who go through painful procedures frequently do so without the use of analgesics or psychological coping methods. Topical analgesics and non-pharmacological measures safely decrease procedure-related pain in children but are usually underutilized. Failure to reduce pain at initial procedures results to a stronger pain response when a subsequent painful procedure is administered without adequate analgesia. Implementing evidence-based multidisciplinary protocols that mitigate discomfort from procedures done to pediatric patients has been shown to be safe and effective. This protocol provides effective education, gives alternative therapies and develops policies through training (Aggarwal, 2010). This can only be achieved through early intervention and prevention, creating community awareness along with a better access to pain management services all of which are natured by a theoretical basis, EBP and defined standards. This model is developed to make sure that health professionals and nurses head in the same direction with preset goals and objectives. Strategies aimed at preventing and managing acute and chronic pain in children should be outlined early in advance. This should be accompanied with valid and comprehensive screening and assessment tools and processes (Nicholas et al. 2011). Patients should actively be involved in treatments by seeking clarifications as to why certain treatments are necessary so that the right treatment is conferred to the right patient for the right reasons (Bedard et al. 2006). Patients with chronic and acute pain can be transferred to care mode while the many of patients experiencing chronic pain are managed in the primary care sector. Some

Federalism and Administration of Policy Research Paper

Federalism and Administration of Policy - Research Paper Example The federalist system in the USA enjoys shared power between federal, state and local governments and involves a requirement for cooperation, harmonization, and interaction. In the American federalism system, the local governments possess most of the discretions and responsibilities for emergency and disaster management where federal organizations are envisioned to deliver monetary support and resources. State governments act as intercessor by enabling the operations of federal policies regarding emergency and disaster management at the local level .Role Of Three Branches Of Federal GovernmentThe constitution comprises of a system which separates the authority where three branches of federal government can scrutinize and balance the role of each other. The three branches of federal government are ‘Executive branch’, ‘Legislative branch’ and ‘Judicial branch’ .Executive Branch: Executive branch comprises of the President, Vice President, and othe r Cabinet Officials such as State Secretary, Treasury Secretary, Defense Secretary and Labor Secretary among others. These officials are appointed by President and together they make up the executive branch. : The legislative branch comprises of the ‘Senate’ and ‘House of Representatives’.   The most important role of legislative branch is to make the rules, regulations and laws. It is the duty of legislative branch to decide the policies and how the federal money can be used for the benefits of the country4.

Third sector - Volunteers in Nonprofits Term Paper

Third sector - Volunteers in Nonprofits - Term Paper Example There are different types of nonprofit organizations as explained below: Charitable Organizations which include institutions like homeless shelters which provide poverty assistance, religious institutions like churches and their ancillary possessions, independent research institutions,universities,hospitals,clinics,nursing homes,treatment centers, libraries,museum,schools.These charitable institutions work for the preservation of natural resources,the promotion of social welfare,and the promotion of music, theatre and other forms of fine arts. Social Welfare organizations work for influencing the legislative and/or political processes. Social/Recreational Organizations such as fraternity and sorority organizations,sports tournament organizations,hobby clubs,garden clubs,country clubs which can all be termed as nonprofit organizations only under the condition that they follow the basic rule of net earnings distribution. However, unlike other nonprofit organizations their income is tax able. Satellite Organizations: These are certain nonprofit organizations whichare subsidiaries or auxiliaries other organizations.These may be retirement benefit funds,employee benefit funds,co-operatives or title holding companies. Membership Groups like fraternal organizations, business associations and veteran groups (Pearce, 1993). Volunteer Characteristics Volunteers are an integral part of a nonprofit industry and it plays a vital role in the working of these types of organizations. Volunteering follows the concept of giving something as input such as time without expecting or receiving any material compensation. Volunteers are a type of non-profit customers in the sense that they contribute to the workings of the organizations and expect some returns other that material compensation from the organization. Volunteers may have varying roles in the organization which include assisting fundraising projects, soliciting for funds, services like visiting the senior citizens or the s ick people, building new homes for the homeless people, participating in membership committees, guiding and mentoring youths as well as looking for the betterment of the environment and the society. Volunteer Expectations Though the volunteers do not look for material gain, they have certain expectations while working for the organization. Nonprofit organizations should therefore try as much as to support and train their volunteers. These organizations should develop management skills to recruit and retain their volunteers a swell as give proper training and development to their volunteers. If the availability of resources is low, the non-profit organization should make the work of the volunteers project based which will mean allocating hours to the volunteers according to the need of the project and not to use continuous time for one work that can be done in lesser time. These organizations should provide opportunities to their volunteers that will provide them the opportunity to l earn new things and develop new skills. For this purpose to be solved, both the organizations as well as the volunteers have to be flexible. Volunteers also expect reciprocity from the organization they are working for. As the population and their needs are changing, so is the need of the volunteer population. The society requires a wide range of services from the nonprofit organizations. So the nonprofits will have to train and educate their

Biology introduction assignment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Biology introduction assignment - Research Paper Example These species are found in Ontario, Canada. Under the Species at Risk Legislation of Ontario, the Northern map and the Snapping turtles are species of Special Concern while the Blanding’s and the Musk turtles are threatened. The greatest risk for these species is being run over on roads and highways. Typically, turtles look for loose, sandy soils to lay their eggs in. But because exposed soil may be difficult to find in natural habitats, turtles are attracted to the artificially-created potential nesting sites such as shoulders of roads, railroad embankments, gravel drives and earthen dams. While they get to and from such locations, the turtles become vulnerable to both vehicular traffic and predators. Genomes evolve as a result of continuous accumulation of mutations. This means that the amount of variation in nucleotide sequences in genomes indicates how recently those genomes have shared a common ancestor. If two genomes have diverged recently in the past, it is expected that they would have much fewer differences in their nucleotide sequences than two genomes whose mutual ancestor is more ancient (Tanaka & Aranishi 2013). Thus, by comparing several genomes, it is possible to figure out their evolutionary relationships. In most of the studies that use molecular markers, the predominant classes are mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite nuclear DNA. Mitochondrial DNA has an important advantage in all phylogenetic research because it is inherited from the maternal line (Chung 2013). This fact facilitates the monitoring of its transmission along the different phases, starting in the early evolution. Another advantage is that Mitochondrial DNA has a high level of variability and a hi gh rate of mutation, compared with the nuclear DNA ( Rubinoff and Holland 2005), in spite of the fact that it does not encode the information for the synthesis of many proteins. This fact makes it ideal for the

Emergency planning Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Emergency planning - Research Paper Example LOGISTICS deals with a broad range of activities including the acquisition and dissemination of all finances and resources required for emergency response, to and from the emergency site and EOC. Moreover, the logistics section also deals with the establishment and maintenance of communication at the EOC. Further, logistics deals with the coordination of all activities necessary for a prompt response to emergencies and recovery from disasters, including MAAs. Plans are developed in collaboration with a number of different stakeholders who partake in the emergency response process. The essence of including such stakeholders is that emergency response is a community-wide process that requires the participation of a broad range of stakeholders. As such, the Tampa county department continually undertakes to train the relevant stakeholder in order to ensure that they are capable of providing meaningful input that will assist in the delivery of a compact and appropriate emergency response plan. Moreover, these individuals play an important part in the continual review and update of the emergency response

Analysis and design of concrete pavements Research Paper - 1

Analysis and design of concrete pavements - Research Paper Example The research project involved carrying out an analysis and design of concrete pavements based on a comprehensive literature review as well as on the results of a number of engineering tests to determine the best designs for concrete pavements. Concrete pavements are road surfaces that are built using a concrete mixture of Portland cement, sand, coarse aggregate and water to provide durable surfaces that can effectively sustain vehicular or foot traffic. The history of the use of concrete pavements on roads and walkways dates back to 1893 when the world’s first strip of concrete pavement was successfully completed. According to Croney (2008), the first concrete roads were constructed in the United States at the beginning of the 20th century and the technology later spread to Europe and the other parts of the world in the 1920s. Over the years, concrete as a building material has been increasingly used for paving airports, highways, residential streets as well as business parking lots. According to many experts, the increasing popularity of concrete pavements is particularly attributed to the numerous benefits of using concrete as a paving material some of which include its durability and less maintenance requirement, workability, strength, cost effectiveness and durability. Contemporary design techniques used for concrete pavements have resulted in the development of economically sustainable concrete pavements that are not only offer one of the best riding surfaces but are able to perform for many years with minimal maintenance. According to Horenstein (34), modern designs often take into account all the diverse sorts of environmental conditions including future estimations on environmental changes and traffic growth. Currently, there is a growing need for sustainable and low cost alternative pavement materials in many developed countries including Australia. For example, since

Ancient Greek Theatre Essay Example for Free

Ancient Greek Theatre Essay The Greek theatre history begins with festivals which honor gods. An example of such a festival was ‘City Dionysia’ festival which honored god Dionysus. During this festival, which was taking place in Athens men perform songs to welcome god Dionysus. Plays were also presented. Athens was the main city where these festivals and theatrical traditions were presented. At ancient Greek Festivals, the actors, directors and dramatists were all the same person. Later only three actors were allowed to perform in each play. And this was followed by adding few non-speaking roles to perform on-stage. Because of the limited number of actors, the chorus played a very active part of Greek theater. During the chorus’ delivery of its lines music was often played. The theatrical forms of the ancient Greek theater were tragedy, comedy and satyr. Athenian tragedy, comedy and satyr plays were some of the earliest theatrical forms to emerge in the world. Greek theater and plays have had a lasting impact on Western drama and culture. Satyr plays dealt with mythological subject in comic manner. Tragedy had as an originator, Thespis, who is considered to be the first Greek actor of tragedy plays. Aristotle’s Poetics say that tragedy originates from dithyrambs which were songs sung in praise of Dionysus at the Dionysia each year. Sophocles, Euripides and Aeschylus were three well-known Greek tragedy playwrights. The structure of Greek tragedy consisted of the following: 1. Late point of attack 2. Violence and death offstage 3. Frequent use of messengers to relate information 4. Usually continuous time of action 5. Usually single place 6. Stories based on myth or history 7. Focus on psychological and ethical attributes of characters Comedy plays were derived from imitation. Aristophanes wrote most of the comedy plays. The structure of the comedy consisted of two parts. Part one had the prolog, where chous gives debate or ‘agon’ and parabasis, a choral ode addressing the audience, in which a social or political problem is discussed. Part two consists of scenes which show the result of the happy idea. Theatre buildings were called a theatron. They were large, open-air structures constructed on the slopes of hills. Most of the Greek theatres were constructed in such a way so that the smallest sound could be transmitted to any seat of the audience. They consisted of four main parts: the orchestra, the skene and the audience (theatron) and the parodos. The orchestra was a large area at the center part of the theatre normally circular. It was there where play, dance and acting took place. The earliest orchestras were simply made of hard earth but later in the Classical period some orchestras began to be made of marble and other materials. The orchestra of the theater of Dionysus in Athens was about 60 feet in diameter. The skene was a large building behind the orchestra which was used as a backstage. It was the place where actors change their costumes and masks. It was usually decorated as a palace, temple or other building, depending on the needs of the play. The audience (theatron) was where people were sitting to enjoy the play and it was in the front of the orchestra. It was usually part of hillside overlooking the orchestra. People in the fifth century BC probably sat on cushions or boards but by the fourth century many Greek theaters had marble seats. The parodos were the passageways by which the chorus and some actors made their entrances and exits. The audience also used them to enter and exit the theater before and after the performance. The two masks of the picture represent the symbols for theater. They represent the comedy and tragedy masks which were worn in ancient Greece. They also represent duality. Actors were very far away from the audience that without the aid of costumes and masks they would be difficult to see. Actors wore thick boots to add to their height and gloves to exaggerate their hanks so that their movements would be easy to see by the audience. The masks were made of linen or cork, so none have survived. We however know that they looked like from statues and paintings of ancient Greek actors. Tragic masks carried mournful or pained expressions, while comic masks were smiling. The head of the actor was covered by his mask, which included hair. It is believed that the shape of the mask amplified the actor’s voice, making his words easier for the audience to hear. This mask is associated with the famous ancient

The Coevolution of Human Immunity and Helminthic Parasites

The Coevolution of Human Immunity and Helminthic Parasites Most multicellular organisms, both vertebrate and invertebrate, have an evolutionary history of infestation by extracellular parasitic worms known as helminths. The immune systems of these species have adapted to the stress of helminth infection, or helmnithiasis, through the development of mechanisms to modulate worm load in chronically infested individuals. Most marsupials and mammals, including humans, use a particular immune response mediated by IgE antibodies molecules that identify and neutralize foreign objects to defend against helminths (Poulsen Hummelshoj 2007). In parts of the world where helminthiasis is still prevalent, there is a selective advantage for genes that increase production of IgE antibodies. However, the adaptation to the stress of chronic worm infestation accounts for the maladaptive response to innocuous substance allergy upon removal of the stress. The presence of parasites triggers the production of molecules known as interleukin-10 (IL-10) cytokines that damped the inflammation response. However, in the absence of parasites, IgE antibodies target harmless proteins and the lack of IL-10 production results in a potentially dangerous inflammatory response. In addition to the removal of the early evolutionary stress of helminths, many technology and infrastructure changes in developed countries have increased human exposure to allergens, thus increasing hypersensitivity to seemingly innocuous substances.   Many species, including humans, evolved under the stress of helminth infestation. As early hominids expanded their ecological niche and encountered new foods, they became hosts for an increased number of helminth species, which would have, in turn, evolved with the hominids. Today, humans act as hosts for more than 25 species of helminths (Warren et al 1990). The shift from the hunter-gatherer lifestyle to agriculture increased sedentism and disease, including parasitic infection. Such disease was spread through contact with animals, other humans, and their wastes. The development of agricultural methods such as irrigation and the use fertilizer would have increased the exposure of early humans to soil-transmitted helminths (Cockburn 1971). For contemporary humans, parasitic and infectious diseases are controlled in some areas of the world, while chronic, noninfectious, degenerative diseases are on the rise. Although new technology has allowed some human populations to benefit from the control of infectious disease, many individuals throughout the world are still affected by infection and parasites. Globally, more than two billion people are chronically infected with soil-transmitted helminths such as schistosomes and hookworms (Florh et al. 2008). These numbers indicate there is still selection for protective mechanisms against helminthiasis in a large proportion of the contemporary human population. Given the prolonged mammalian history with parasites, the immune system has evolved protective mechanisms to safeguard the heath of a host in the event of a parasitic infection. When a helminth enters a host, antigens from the parasite diffuse across the hosts internal membranes. Two types of white blood cells, B cells and T cells, recognize antigens in the blood stream. B cells are released into the blood and carried to capillary beds serving the tissues and organs of the lymphatic system a system of vessels and organs that helps balance the fluid content of blood and the surrounding tissues while participating in the bodys defense against invading disease organisms (Russel et al. 2008). T cells are released into the blood and carried to the thymus, an organ of the lymphatic system. The adaptive immune responses are regulated by two mechanisms: antibody-mediated immunity and cell-mediated immunity. During antibody-mediated immunity, derivatives of B cells known as plasma cells secrete antibodies that circulate throughout the blood and lymphatic fluid, recognizing, binding, and removing antigens. Each plasma cell is specific for at least one particular antigen, but some are capable of recognizing any antigen, even if it has never before been encountered. Plasma cells are capable of secreting are five major classes of antibodies. These antibodies are, in order of decreasing concentration, IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE (Barnes et al. 1999). Each type of antibody has a specific function in the immune system and IgE is most relevant in combating infection by parasitic worms and mediating many allergic responses such as hay fever, asthma, and hives (Russell et al 2008). Cell-mediated immunity serves as the primary mechanism for killing parasite larvae. During cell-media ted immunity, a subset of T cells becomes activated and, with other cells of the immune system, attacks and kills foreign cells directly. These two mechanisms interact to defend the host against extracellular parasites. Parasitic antigens are first detected by plasma cells in the membranes of the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts, triggering the production of two types of IgE antibodies: those that are specific for a particular parasite and those that are nonspecific (Grant et al 2008). These antibodies bind to mast cells. Mast cells are a particular type of cell found within many body tissues that contain granules of molecules such as histamine. The mast cells are activated to degranulate when the antigen binds to the attached IgE antibody, causing the internal histamine to be released. The release of histamine causes various physiological changes associated with inflammation (Flohr et al. 2008). The cascade of reactions functions to damage and expel the parasite (Barnes et al. 1999). Inflammation is complex biological process that occurs in vascular tissues as a response to pathogens (such as helminths), damaged cells, or irritants. In an inflammatory response, an individual may experience bronchial constriction, vascular dilation, and an increase in mucous secretions, which lead to the associated symptoms of wheezing, coughing, itching, sneezing, and vomiting. During anaphylaxis, a severe form of inflammation, there is an intense generation of mast cells and release of their mediators. Such a response has effects on various organs and may be fatal. Examples of anaphylaxis-inducing antigens include antibiotics, foods, and foreign proteins, such as venom. Thus the inflammatory response to the presence of a particular antigen may in an of itself harmful to the organism (Florh et al. 2008) Once an immune reaction has run its course and the invading parasites have been eliminated, long-lived T helper cells, derived from the encounter with the antigen remain in an inactive state in the lymphatic system and provide an immunological memory of the foreign antigen (Poulsen Hummelshoj 2007). When a foreign antigen enters the body for a subsequent time, a secondary immune response is triggered. The helper T cells recognize the antigen and secrete small proteins known as cytokines that regulate or assist in an immune response. Helper T cells can be divided into TH1 and TH2 subsets that fulfill separate functions in regulating response to infection. TH1 cells produce the response to intracellular infections while TH2 cells produce responses to extracellular infections and allergens. During helminth infections, the number of TH2 cells is greater than the number of TH1 cells. When TH2 cells detect previously recognized parasitic antigens, they secrete a particular cytokine, or known interleukin-4 (IL-4) (Barnes et al 1999). IL-4 promotes parasite-specific IgE antibody, helper T cell, and mast cell production. The adaptation of the IgE antibody immune response is beneficial during helminth infection. High levels of IgE minimize the number of parasites that infest a host during chronic exposure (Dunne et al. 1992). Individuals infected with helminths may have IgE antibody levels that are up to 100 times greater than the normal level, which typically decrease after anti-helminth treatment (Poulsen Hummelshoj 2007). Additionally, the type of IgE antibody produced may change throughout a humans life to better target a particular parasite. Studies have shown that humans acquire a natural immunity to schistosome infection in adolescence (Grant et al 2008). This natural immunity corresponds to increased levels of IgE from schistosome-specific antigens and decreased production of non-specific IgE. For young children, the greater nonspecific component in IgE production occurs at the expense of schistosome-specific IgE, resulting in a less protective antibody-mediated immune response when compared to adolescents and adults. To establish long-term immunity and because contacts between vector an agent that transmits an infectious disease and host may be infrequent, it is important for the both the host and parasite to maintain chronic infections. Most human parasitic infections last for years and must therefore not overwhelm the host. Parasites produce self-limiting infections that allow the host to defend against lethal infection while maintaining a viable population. One strategy is through concomitant immunity, a response seen in adult schistosomes, where an immune response is induced to limit, but not eliminate, subsequent infections of the host by infective larvae, without causing the rejection of the adult worms (Sher Ottensen 1988). Schistosomes and hookworms also trigger the production of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 (IL-10) in parasite-induced T cells. IL-10 protects the host from extreme mast cell degranulation and the initiation of intense inflammation (Florh et al. 2008). T he level of IL-10 decreases after anti-helminth treatments once the parasite is no longer present to induce production. In summary, the immune system of most mammalian and marsupial hosts is highly adapted to battle parasitic disease. The generation of parasite-specific IgE antibodies by plasma cells initiates an inflammatory response and killer cell activity. During subsequent encounters with an antigen, the synthesis of IgE is controlled by TH2 cells and up-regulated by the cytokine IL-4. The inflammatory response is, however modulated by the release of anti-inflammatory IL-10 cytokines, in order to protect the host from the dangerous effects of intense mast cell degranulation. Through these mechanisms, the more successful human host will produce higher levels of parasite-specific IgE antibodies with which to prevent overwhelming worm infestation. Hosts less proficient at producing sufficiently high levels of parasite-specific IgE antibodies are more likely to succumb to greater worm loads. Allergy is hypersensitivity to a typically innocuous substance. Allergy begins after sensitization of a specific allergen, an antigen that elicits an allergic response. Similar to a helminthic infestation, plasma cells generate IgE antibodies during sensitization that are specific to the allergens to which an individual has been exposed. These IgE antibodies bind to receptors on mast cells. The binding of the allergen to an IgE antibody triggers a cascade of events resembling the immune response to helmthiasis (Zanders et al. 1992). The mast cells degranulate to release mediators, including histamine. Unlike in helminthiasis, in which IgE antibodies are directed at the worm and its by-produces, the allergic response is directed at seemingly innocuous substances. Also, the allergens are not capable of initiating the parasite-induced production of IL-10 that protects the host from the potentially harmful effects of the inflammatory response (Flohr et al. 2008). Thus, humans have adapte d to respond to the outside world in the presence of helminths and in their absence we are unable to modulate the maladaptive inflammatory response that may result in annoying or dangerous symptoms. In industrialized countries, the prevalence of allergies and conditions such as asthma have increased over the last three or four decades (Poulsen Hummelshoj 2007). These countries have better-developed infrastructures that have resulted in the elimination of helminths and an increase in noninfectious disease. Similarly, allergic disease prevalence is increasing in industrializing countries such as India and China (Flohr et al. 2008). Besides the removal of helminths, a significant consequence of modernization is the creation of a microenvironment that increases our exposure to domestic arthropods, such as dust mites, and other pests. Research has shown that there is a positive correlation between level of infestation of household pests and the degree of urbanization (Barnes et al. 1999). Evidence suggests that allergic reactions are less pronounced in individuals infected with helminths. Thus, areas where helminthic infection is endemic typically have lower levels of allergic disease when compared with areas free of helminths (Grant et al. 2008). Studies have consistently found that most helminths investigated imbue their hosts with protective effects during skin prick tests (SPT) tests used to diagnose allergies by eliciting a small, controlled allergic response. However, while all helminths increase the level of IgE antibody produced by a host, infection by schistosomes and hookworms parasites found to trigger the production of IL-10 have the strongest association with protection against allergy and asthma (Flohr et al. 2008). Individuals are more likely to develop asthma during the absence of helminthiasis, or during mild helminthiasis a time during which less parasite-specific IgE antibody is produced than during a chronic infection, and less IL-10 is produce d to reduce inflammation (Lynch 1992). Therefore, helminthiasis and allergy are not likely mutually exclusive, but allergy is much less likely to occur in severe helminthic disease than in mild helminthic disease (Barnes et al. 1999). The removal of helminths from infected populations in Venezuela, Vietnam, and Gabon has shown a resultant increase in allergic skin sensitization during SPT (Florh et al. 2008). Marsh et al. (1980) found that non-European descendents living in developed countries have a higher propensity for allergic response. These results are expected because those individuals likely had a greater genetic propensity to produce IgE, resulting in an increased inflammation response, a decrease in IL-10 production to modulate inflammation, and an increased exposure to inhalant allergens. There is a selective advantage for a predisposition to produce high levels of IgE, as this antibodies serves as a key regulator in the maintenance of helminthic infection in populations that are chronically exposed to parasites. Additionally, it has been found that certain levels of allergens affect people with family histories of allergy, but do not trigger an allergic response in most other people (Sporik et al. 1990). These finding imply that allergy and asthma reactions occur only in genetically susceptible individuals after adequate or persistent exposure to specific allergens. While the total level of serum IgE does not appear to directly reflect natural immunity against asthma in helminth infection-endemic populations, linkage studies have implicated a particular chromosome locus, or region, in controlling asthma and intensity of schistosomiasis in Brazilian and Senegalese populations. Because this same locus is identified with both helminthic infection and for allergy suscept ibility in a number of independent studies, there may be a common genetic basis for host protection against helminthic infection and susceptibility allergic disease (Grant et al. 2008). Through modernization, populations acquire objects that promote allergens such as upholstered furniture, carpeting and domestic pets. The introduction of such objects has been correlated to a rapidly increase the prevalence of asthma in populations with either high or low helminthiasis prevalence. An example in a study by Dowse et al. (1985) showed that asthma incidence increased over ten years within Eastern Highland villages of Papua New Guinea that was attributed to the introduction of wool blankets to the villagers and the sudden and profound exposure to house dust mites within the blankets. Barnes et al. (1997) found that house dust mite allergen concentrations in Barbados were higher in better-built homes, likely because the plumbing contributed to a higher humidity levels that were more conducive to dust mite proliferation than the drier wood homes. During the process of modernization, in addition to the acquisition of homes and objects that increase allergen exposure, the red uction or elimination of helminthiasis, increases the risk of allergic disease more dramatically. Adaptation often results in trade-offs that may compromise an individuals adjustment to his or her environment. The coevolution of helminths and humans shaped the immune response to be highly sensitive to parasitic antigens. This response, which is beneficial to host and parasites, is modulated by many mechanisms. TH2 activation stimulates the production of IL-4 cytokines that trigger production of IgE antibodies. IgE mediate an immune response targeted the antigens released by parasites as well as allergens. Parasites presence triggers anti-inflammatory IL-10 cytokines production by specialized T cells that reduce the inflammatory effects of mast cell degranulation. Removal of the stress helminthiasis also removes the modulation of the inflammatory response through IL-10. Under these conditions, the maladapted response of IgE antibodies reacting to harmless allergens is allergy in the form of disproportioned, potentially dangerous inflammation event. Although levels of IgE are highe st during a parasitic infection or an allergic response, levels are also affected by genetic predisposition. Selective pressures maintain high levels of IgE expression in regions of the world with high helminthiasis prevalence. Through modernization, the stress of helminthiasis has been removed while the stress of allergen exposure has increased. Activation of IgE by innocuous allergens triggers the maladaptive response of an allergic reaction. Individuals who are not infested by helminths with a genetic propensity for high IgE antibody expression are most susceptible to allergic hypersensitivity. In developed countries, decreased helminthiasis prevalence in junction with increased allergen exposure are responsible for the increase in allergic disease prevalence.